What works, what’s fair – The University of Melbourne, The Australian National University and Swinburne University of Technology 2022

What works, what’s fair – The University of Melbourne, The Australian National University and Swinburne University of Technology

Promoting workplace gender equality is a central topic of academic and policy debate. One obstacle is a lack of evidence-based resources for decision-makers. The second obstacle is the lack of discussion on the effectiveness of strategies.

This project addressed these obstacles by bringing together research on:

• anonymous application procedures
• fathers’ use of parental leave and flexible work arrangements
• tackling sexual harassment in the public sector
• information-based approaches to achieving gender pay equity
• the effectiveness of gender targets and quotas in leadership roles.

The findings and recommendations expand the evidence base for organisational gender equality.

Anonymous application procedures

Women and people from diverse backgrounds continue to face barriers in gaining employment. This can be due to conscious and unconscious bias in recruitment. Unconscious bias (such as favouring certain groups of people) can influence recruitment outcomes. This is more likely when recruiters face time pressure or have large workloads.

The project reviewed anonymous application procedures (also known as CV de-identification). This can be a tool to reduce discrimination in recruitment.

The research team

• Dr Victor Sojo, The University of Melbourne
• Dr Melissa Wheeler, Swinburne University of Technology
• PhD Candidate Lindsie Catherine Arthur, The University of Melbourne
• Dr Melanie McGrath, CSIRO

How was the research conducted?

This project used a systematic review. It identified, selected, appraised and summarised the available evidence on the topic.

What did the research find?

What works:

• Anonymous application procedures help if no other diversity management actions are in place.
• Anonymous application procedures can be a tool to reduce discrimination.
• Anonymous application procedures hide age, gender and ethnic background. This can reduce bias and help recruiters assess applicants based on their experience.
• In the job offer phase, anonymous application procedures can reduce discrimination against women.

What doesn’t work:

• Using anonymous application procedures in organisations that already have effective equal opportunity actions. In fact, some diversity indicators went backwards when using anonymous application procedures.
• Anonymous application procedures cannot prevent discrimination during the interview phase. Discrimination is often based on visual cues, such as age, ethnicity and weight.
• Anonymous application procedures don’t help people from ethnic minorities during the job offer phase. This requires more research.

Recommendations

• Organisations should only use this approach if it won't hinder other actions in place to address inequality in recruitment.
• Organisations should track changes in the composition of applicants offered a job. In particular, organisations should track whether candidate diversity decreases after the interviews.
• Organisations need to consider other strategies to reduce discrimination in recruitment.
• Applicants should not anonymise their own CVs. Instead, there should be standard templates and clear instructions for recruiters. Independent reviews will ensure CVs are anonymised.

Fathers’ use of parental leave and other flexible work arrangements

Uptake of parental leave and flexible work is highly gendered, with women more likely than men to use these benefits. This can be both a cause and effect of gendered labour market outcomes.

This review identified the influences on men’s use of parental leave and flexible work. These can be individual, organisational and societal.

The research team

• PhD Candidate Rachael Hadoux, The University of Melbourne
• Dr Melissa Wheeler, Swinburne University of Technology
• Professor Cordelia Fine, The University of Melbourne

How was the research conducted?

The researchers conducted a rapid review of the existing literature, including:

• a literature search and selection
• data extraction
• and analysis.

What did the research find?

• The majority of research exploring men’s use of flexible work arrangements centred around parental leave uptake. In contrast, investigations into other flexible arrangements (e.g., flexible hours, work from home, job share) were limited.
• Fathers who take up parental leave face economic and career costs.
• Unsupportive workplace culture is a key barrier for men taking parental leave.
• Men can face ‘flexibility stigma’ when they access parental leave, whereby they are seen as less committed and less productive.
• Well-paid paternity leave, reserved for fathers, increases men’s uptake of parental leave.

Recommendations

• Closing the gender pay gap will make the uptake of parental leave more equal.
• Paid leave that matches current salaries reduces the economic cost to the household of more equal parental leave.
• Backfill staff who are on parental leave instead of expecting colleagues to absorb the additional workload.
• Staff evaluations must consider performance (not presenteeism) to increase leave use.
• Make flexible work hours and working from home more visible, acceptable and workable.
• Male-dominated areas of the public service may particularly benefit from reserved paternity leave. This is because men may be reluctant to use shared leave policies.

Addressing public sector drivers of sexual harassment

Sexual harassment affects people’s mental and physical health, confidence and career prospects.

Workplaces that tolerate sexual harassment have poorer occupational and personal wellbeing. They have reduced performance, productivity and staff retention. They also face reputational and legal risks.

This research identified factors that increase the likelihood of sexual harassment in public sector organisations. It sets out prevention and management approaches.

The research team

• PhD Candidate Lindsie Catherine Arthur, The University of Melbourne
• Dr Victor Sojo, The University of Melbourne
• Dr Victoria Roberts, The University of Melbourne
• PhD Candidate Kate Western, The Australian National University

How was the research conducted?

The researchers conducted a rapid review of the existing literature, including:

• literature search and selection
• data extraction
• analysis.

What did the research find?

To date, most research has focused on individual, interpersonal and legislative factors. This research identified structural and social factors that contribute to sexual harassment.

Structural factors associated with higher incidence of sexual harassment:

• Unequal distribution of formal and informal power.
• Workplaces dominated by one gender.
• Occupations with stereotyped gender-based roles (e.g., construction, nursing).
• Client-facing (e.g., librarian, receptionist) and high intensity roles (e.g., crisis response teams) with increased engagement with the public.

Social factors associated with higher incidence of sexual harassment:

• High value placed on 'masculine' traits (e.g., competitiveness, dominance).
• Unclear standards of behaviour or consequences for sexual harassment.
• Tolerance towards sexual harassment.
• History or perception of victim blaming.

Recommendations

• Promote a culture of respect and define clear behavioural expectations.
• Increase gender diversity of leadership and workforce.
• Review and update organisational sexual harassment policies for clarity and accessibility.
• Train leaders on preventing and responding to sexual harassment.
• Train staff on respectful relations, including diversity and inclusion.
• Remove barriers to reporting sexual harassment (provide anonymous reporting systems).
• Introduce flexible work policies so that flexibility is not subject to individual supervisors.
• Reduce opportunity for sexual manipulation for promotions or bonuses through transparent performance reviews.
• Train management on bystander intervention.

Information-based approaches to gender pay equity, pay audits, pay transparency and job evaluation

Women and men are entitled to equal payment for work of equal value. To make sure this occurs, it is necessary to identify what jobs men and women are doing, and how much they are paid.

The research team

• Dr Miriam Glennie, The Australian National University
• Prof Michelle Ryan, The Australian National University
• Dr Victor Sojo, The University of Melbourne

How was the research conducted?

The researchers conducted a rapid review of the existing literature including:

• literature search and selection
• data extraction
• analysis.

What did the research find?

This review had findings on:

• pay audits (analysis to identify pay gaps)
• job evaluations (using job categories to determine pay rates)
• pay transparency (reviews of an organisation’s payment practices).

Pay audits

• Pay audits have limited impact when the information collected during the audit is not used in decision making.
• The variety of approaches to pay audits makes it difficult to compare across organisations.
• Pay audits that exclude outliers may reduce the visibility of the pay gap by removing high-paid men and low-paid women.
• It can be difficult to prove that differences in pay are because of gender bias, which can make it less likely that leaders will act on audit data.

Job evaluation

• Job evaluation can reduce the gender pay gap if unequal pay is corrected.
• Job worth assessment (i.e., assigning monetary value to jobs) can be gender biased. Male assessors are more likely to rate stereotypical female job skills as of lower value.
• Using market pay rates can reinforce prevailing gender bias.
• The Victorian Public Service should build internal capability for conducting pay analysis.
• Understanding the cultural undervaluing of female-dominated jobs reduces resistance to changes to pay.

Pay transparency

• Publishing individual pay information may be better at showing pay inequity than reporting organisation gender pay gaps.
• Transparency on pay determination will not reduce the pay gap without changes to biased pay practices.
• Pay equity should not be left to individuals – most women do not have the bargaining power to improve their pay.

Recommendations

• Use pay audits and transparency to increase the accountability of organisations and managers.
• Incorporate information from audits into equity and diversity training for managers.
• Develop statistical capability within the Victorian Public Sector to support whole-of-sector action.
• Present pay audit results in non-expert language to increase awareness of the issue.
• Include pay audit information in pay system planning or pay-related decisions.
• Educate employees about pay equity and the pay gap before communicating analysis.
• Use the most specific details in analysis, while maintaining individual privacy and confidentiality.
• Breaking down data to smaller workplace units is more effective than using organisation-wide pay gaps.

Gender targets and quotas in leadership roles: examining secondary gender equality outcomes

Women are half of the Australian workforce, but underrepresented in leadership. Gender targets set goals for the percentage or number of people from different genders in specific roles.

Targets and quotas can increase women in leadership in combination with other interventions.

The research team

• Dr Melanie McGrath, CSIRO
• Prof Michelle Ryan, The Australian National University
• Dr Victor Sojo, The University of Melbourne

How was the research conducted?

The researchers conducted a rapid review of the existing literature, including:

• literature search and selection
• data extraction
• analysis.

What did the research find?

• Quotas improve perceptions of the competence of women and attitudes towards gender equality.
• Increased electoral representation of women enhances women’s trust in government service provision.
• Gender quotas are more effective when men champion gender equality.
• To achieve critical mass for gender equality, women should be at least 33% of board members. This should be 40-50% for larger boards.
• Quotas increase women on boards, but not in senior roles such as board chair or mayor in the first 5-10 years.
• Pay gaps persist even when there are gender quotas at board level.
• The pay gap is smaller in countries that have established board quotas than those that do not.

Recommendations

• Consider intersectional identities – such as those based on culture, disability or sexuality – when setting quotas for leadership roles.
• Quotas should draw on data to ensure a diverse representation of women in leadership.
• Apply quotas to all roles where there is under-representation of a minority group. Don’t rely on a trickle-down effect from leadership quotas.
• Communicate the importance of fair and equal treatment and how quotas can help achieve this.
• Organisations should address incorrect notions of ‘merit’, which overlook qualified diverse candidates.
• A long-term ‘pipeline’ of women at all levels will help address under-representation.
• Quotas must operate alongside other actions to enhance gender equality.

Read the full report

Citing this research

Sojo, V., Ryan, M., Fine, C., Wheeler, M., McGrath, M., Glennie, M., Roberts, V., Arthur, L., Hadoux, R., & Western, K., ‘What works, what’s fair? Using systematic reviews to build the evidence base on strategies to increase gender equality in the public sector’, The University of Melbourne, The Australian National University, and Swinburne University of Technology, 2022, doi: 10.6084/m9.figshare.19243536